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"Stress fracture"

Review Article

Pain & Musculoskeletal rehabilitation

Hormonal Shifts and Structural Strain: A Literature Review of Menopause and Perimenopause in Relation to Overuse Injuries and Stress Fractures
Mustafa Ansari, Faisal Hussain, Mutasem Shopon, Hanfa Ajmal, Mueez Asif, Sharon David
Ann Rehabil Med 2026;50(3):139-149.   Published online June 22, 2026
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5535/arm.250134
Musculoskeletal injury risk in midlife women has traditionally been attributed to estrogen decline, but this narrow focus overlooks the broader biomechanical, neuromuscular, and structural changes associated with menopause. Estrogen plays a multisystem role in maintaining trabecular bone integrity, collagen turnover, and neuromuscular coordination. Its abrupt loss causes bone demineralization (2%–5% annually in early menopause), impairs tendon repair, and contributes to sarcopenia. Fluctuating estradiol levels during perimenopause may transiently increase ligament laxity, further destabilizing joints. Common injuries such as Achilles and rotator cuff tendinopathies, plantar fasciitis, and stress fractures are amplified by low bone mineral density, prior fracture history, aromatase inhibitor use, and rapid increases in physical activity. Although early initiation of hormone replacement therapy reduces fracture risk by 20%–40%, it is not appropriate for all patients due to contraindications and individualized risk–benefit profiles. Non-hormonal strategies—including resistance training, nutritional optimization, and early screening with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and peripheral quantitative computed tomography—remain underutilized, particularly among marginalized populations. This structured narrative review synthesizes evidence from endocrinology, biomechanics, and musculoskeletal epidemiology to evaluate limitations in current research, including reliance on observational data, homogeneous cohorts, and technocentric approaches with limited generalizability. Future efforts should prioritize personalized, hormone-informed exercise prescriptions, biomarker-guided monitoring, and community-based prevention strategies. The prevailing estrogen-centric paradigm may benefit from a broader multidisciplinary framework integrating biological, mechanical, and social determinants of injury risk. We propose a hormone–tissue–load mismatch model that reframes menopause as a modifiable biomechanical window for injury prevention.
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Case Reports
A Case Report of Long-Term Bisphosphonate Therapy and Atypical Stress Fracture of Bilateral Femur
Yil Ryun Jo, Hye Won Kim, Seock Ho Moon, Young Jin Ko
Ann Rehabil Med 2013;37(3):430-432.   Published online June 30, 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5535/arm.2013.37.3.430

Bisphosphonates are potent inhibitors of bone resorption and considered as a gold standard and are generally recommended as first-line therapy in patients with osteoporosis. Though bisphosphonates are shown to significantly reduce the risk of vertebral, non-vertebral and hip fractures, recent reports suggest a possible correlation between long-term bisphosphonate therapy and the occurrence of insufficiency fractures owing to prolonged bone turnover suppression. We report a patient with non-traumatic stress fractures of bilateral femoral shafts related to long-term bisphosphonate therapy indicating the need for a critical evaluation of patients with long-term bisphosphonate therapy.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
  • Bilateral Atypical Femoral Fractures after Bisphosphonate Treatment for Osteoporosis: A Literature Review
    SeokJoon Hwang, Minsu Seo, Dongin Lim, Min Suk Choi, Jin-Woo Park, Kiyeun Nam
    Journal of Clinical Medicine.2023; 12(3): 1038.     CrossRef
  • In silico studies of magnesium-based implants: A review of the current stage and challenges
    Tamadur Albaraghtheh, Regine Willumeit-Römer, Berit Zeller-Plumhoff
    Journal of Magnesium and Alloys.2022; 10(11): 2968.     CrossRef
  • Bilateral Atypical Femoral Shaft Fractures and Bisphosphonate Therapy; A Case Report
    Glynn A
    MOJ Orthopedics & Rheumatology.2017;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • American Society of Biomechanics Journal of Biomechanics Award 2013: Cortical bone tissue mechanical quality and biological mechanisms possibly underlying atypical fractures
    Joseph R. Geissler, Devendra Bajaj, J. Christopher Fritton
    Journal of Biomechanics.2015; 48(6): 883.     CrossRef
  • Bilateral Femur Fractures Associated With Short-term Bisphosphonate Use
    Aiman Rifai, Sina Pourtaheri, Andrew Carbone, John J. Callaghan, Chris M. Stadler, Nicole Record, Kimona Issa
    Orthopedics.2015;[Epub]     CrossRef
  • Acute Nontraumatic Clavicle Fracture Associated with Long-Term Bisphosphonate Therapy
    Shen Hwa Vun, Yahya Husami, Sajan Shareef, Diane Bramley
    Case Reports in Orthopedics.2014; 2014: 1.     CrossRef
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Stress Fracture of Talus as a Complication of Phenol Block: Case Report.
Song, Yangjoo , Hwang, Yunsung , Park, Insun
J Korean Acad Rehabil Med 1997;21(2):444-448.

Motor point block with phenol solution has the advantage of technical ease, bedside performance, and repetition as necessary in reducing spasticity. To our knowledge, however, complicating stress fracture that occur during the course of treatment after motor point block has not been described. We report the occurance of stress fracture of the head of right talus after motor point block with phenol solution. A 17-year-old boy had a gait disturbance due to excessive plantar flexion and inversion of right ankle by spasticity. Percutaneous motor point block to right tibialis posterior and right gastrocnemius was done with 7% aqueous phenol solution. Just after the block, he began to bear his weight on right heel and physical therapy including gait training was started. He complained of right ankle pain a week after resumption of weight-bearing while walking. Bone scan and magnetic resonance imaging of right ankle revealed stress fracture of talus of right foot. This case illustrated that physiatrists involved in the management of such patients should be aware that secondary stress fractures can occur.

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